Peer Review
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A For the present account of peer review, experts evaluate manuscripts or proposals for validity, clarity, importance and fit before or after publication. In scholarly communication, the term conflict of interest refers to a secondary interest that could improperly influence professional judgement. The definition gives researchers a common starting point for discussing peer review, but it does not identify a cause by itself. Two observations of peer review can share the label conflict of interest while differing in scale, timing or origin. B Knowledge of peer review accumulated unevenly across journals and research funding. A striking report could establish that a pattern existed, yet it could not show whether distributed scrutiny operated elsewhere. Researchers examining peer review therefore moved toward shared definitions and planned comparisons based on reviewer experiments rather than discarding the earlier record. C Researchers rely chiefly on reviewer experiments to investigate peer review. Research on peer review has found that editors vary review procedures or compare ratings, revisions and later error detection across submissions. They decide their comparison, exclusions and outcome measures for peer review in advance. A result about peer review is treated as stronger when it survives more than one source of evidence, not simply when one instrument measuring peer review reports many decimal places. D The evidence about peer review is informative but conditional. One point relevant to peer review is that peer review can improve reporting and catch problems, but agreement is limited and important errors may remain. Researchers test distributed scrutiny as an explanation. Evidence reviewed for peer review shows that several readers with different expertise examine claims that one editor cannot check alone. Confidence in distributed scrutiny rises when independent measures of peer review agree and rival explanations fail, rather than when a single comparison happens to be statistically precise. E Practical programmes translate evidence about peer review into action. The discussion of peer review notes that journals use guidance, specialist checks, transparent reports and post-publication correction. Their stated focus is research quality. Teams working on peer review compare later outcomes with conditions before implementation and record unintended effects. This evaluation of peer review determines whether the original explanation involving distributed scrutiny remains useful outside the research setting. F Interpretation of peer review must stop short of a universal claim. For the present account of peer review, prestige, identity and disciplinary preference can influence judgement, while reviewer labour is often invisible. Future work on peer review is organised around review-process trials. For future research on peer review, review-process trials will compare practical reforms with outcomes beyond simple publication decisions. This use of review-process trials targets a specific uncertainty about peer review rather than merely increasing the volume of data.